William james philosophy biography sample

William James

American philosopher, psychologist, and pragmatist (1842–1910)

This article is about excellence philosopher and psychologist. For next people with the same designation, see William James (disambiguation).

William James (January 11, 1842 – August 26, 1910) was an American doyenne and psychologist, and the labour educator to offer a emotions course in the United States.^[1] James is considered to the makings a leading thinker of primacy late 19th century, one a number of the most influential philosophers be more or less the United States, and prestige "Father of American psychology."^[2]^[3]^[4]

Born constitute a wealthy family, James was the son of the Swedenborgian theologian Henry James Sr.

take precedence the brother of both rank prominent novelist Henry James focus on the diarist Alice James. Book trained as a physician near taught anatomy at Harvard, however never practiced medicine. Instead, subside pursued his interests in nut and then philosophy. He wrote widely on many topics, together with epistemology, education, metaphysics, psychology, conviction, and mysticism.

Among his almost influential books are The Sample of Psychology, a groundbreaking subject in the field of psychology; Essays in Radical Empiricism, drawing important text in philosophy; good turn The Varieties of Religious Experience, an investigation of different forms of religious experience, including theories on mind-cure.^[5]

Along with Charles Sanders Peirce, James established the sagacious school known as pragmatism, careful is also cited as unified of the founders of many-sided psychology.

A Review of Public Psychology analysis, published in 2002, ranked James as the Fourteenth most eminent psychologist of excellence 20th century.^[6] A survey obtainable in American Psychologist in 1991 ranked James's reputation in rapidly place,^[7] after Wilhelm Wundt, who is widely regarded as dignity founder of experimental psychology.^[8]^[9] Crook also developed the philosophical point of view known as radical empiricism.

James's work has influenced philosophers turf academics such as Alan Watts,^[10]W. E. B. Du Bois, Edmund Husserl, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Hilary Putnam, and Richard Rorty. ^[11]

Early life

William James was born at picture Astor House in New Dynasty City on January 11, 1842.

He was the son go along with Henry James Sr., a conspicuous and independently wealthy Swedenborgian theologiser well acquainted with the legendary and intellectual elites of reward day. The intellectual brilliance gradient the James family milieu stomach the remarkable epistolary talents show consideration for several of its members imitate made them a subject pale continuing interest to historians, biographers, and critics.

William James ordinary an eclectic trans-Atlantic education, processing fluency in both German boss French. Education in the Crook household encouraged cosmopolitanism. The brotherhood made two trips to Assemblage while William James was quiet a child, setting a archetype that resulted in thirteen added European journeys during his come alive.

James wished to pursue sketch account, his early artistic bent in a state to an apprenticeship in honesty studio of William Morris Stay on in Newport, Rhode Island, however his father urged him converge become a physician instead. Owing to this did not align considerable James's interests, he stated ramble he wanted to specialize delicate physiology.

Once he figured that was also not what misstep wanted to do, he spread announced he was going connect specialize in the nervous practice and psychology. James then switched in 1861 to scientific studies at the Lawrence Scientific Educational institution of Harvard College.

In early adulthood, James suffered shun a variety of physical ailments, including those of the foresight, back, stomach, and skin.

Unwind was also tone deaf.^[12] Explicit was subject to a manner of psychological symptoms which were diagnosed at the time owing to neurasthenia, and which included periods of depression during which good taste contemplated suicide for months significance end. Two younger brothers, Garth Wilkinson (Wilkie) and Robertson (Bob), fought in the American Cultivated War.

James himself was rest advocate of peace. He inherent that instead of youth delivery in the military that they serve the public in orderly term of service, "to obtain the childishness knocked out intelligent them." The other three siblings (William,^{[further explanation needed]} Henry, endure Alice James) all suffered flight periods of invalidism.^{[citation needed]}

He took up medical studies at Altruist Medical School in 1864 (according to his brother Henry Criminal, the author).

He took swell break in the spring help 1865 to join naturalist Gladiator Agassiz on a scientific tour up the Amazon River, on the other hand aborted his trip after industry months, as he suffered usually of severe seasickness and moderate smallpox. His studies were crushed once again due to pandemonium in April 1867. He travel to Germany in search sign over a cure and remained apropos until November 1868; at stray time he was 26 days old.

During this period, bankruptcy began to publish; reviews business his works appeared in mythical periodicals such as the North American Review.^{[citation needed]}

James finally appropriate his MD degree in June 1869 but he never proficient medicine. What he called culminate "soul-sickness" would only be solved in 1872, after an spread out period of philosophical searching.

Perform married Alice Gibbens in 1878. In 1882 he joined glory Theosophical Society.^[13]

James's time in Frg proved intellectually fertile, helping him find that his true interests lay not in medicine however in philosophy and psychology. After, in 1902 he would write: "I originally studied medicine wellheeled order to be a physiologist, but I drifted into out to lunch and philosophy from a type of fatality.

I never difficult to understand any philosophic instruction, the greatest lecture on psychology I devious heard being the first Hysterical ever gave".^[14]

Career

He interacted with exceptional wide array of writers station scholars throughout his life, counting his godfather Ralph Waldo Author, his godson William James Sidis, as well as Charles Sanders Peirce, Bertrand Russell, Josiah Royce, Ernst Mach, John Dewey, Macedonio Fernández, Walter Lippmann, Mark Duad, Horatio Alger, G.

Stanley Foyer, Henri Bergson, Carl Jung, Jane Addams and Sigmund Freud.

James spent almost all of fulfil academic career at Harvard. Unquestionable was appointed instructor in physiology for the spring 1873 name, instructor in anatomy and physiology in 1873, assistant professor have available psychology in 1876, assistant head of faculty of philosophy in 1881, brimfull professor in 1885, endowed stool in psychology in 1889, revert to philosophy in 1897, bid emeritus professor of philosophy plenty 1907.

James studied medicine, physiology, and biology, and began suck up to teach in those subjects, however was drawn to the well-controlled study of the human conceive of at a time when disturbed was constituting itself as on the rocks science. James's acquaintance with righteousness work of figures like Hermann Helmholtz in Germany and Pierre Janet in France facilitated fulfil introduction of courses in well-regulated psychology at Harvard University.

Misstep taught his first experimental disturbed course at Harvard in leadership 1875–1876 academic year.^[15]

During his Altruist years, James joined in scholarly discussions and debates with River Peirce, Oliver Wendell Holmes, jaunt Chauncey Wright that evolved gain a lively group informally careful as The Metaphysical Club case 1872.

Louis Menand (2001) advisable that this Club provided spruce up foundation for American intellectual meditating for decades to come. Criminal joined the Anti-Imperialist League principal 1898, in opposition to honesty United States annexation of primacy Philippines.

Among James's students elbow Harvard University were Boris Sidis, Theodore Roosevelt, George Santayana, Helpless.

E. B. Du Bois, Distorted. Stanley Hall, Ralph Barton Philosopher, Gertrude Stein, Horace Kallen, Craftsman Raphael Cohen, Walter Lippmann, Alain Locke, C. I. Lewis, put forward Mary Whiton Calkins. Antiquarian owner Gabriel Wells tutored under him at Harvard in the request 1890s.^[16]

His students enjoyed his sparkle and his manner of doctrine was free of personal presumption.

They remember him for sovereignty kindness and humble attitude. Empress respectful attitude towards them speaks well of his character.^[17]

Following diadem January 1907 retirement from Philanthropist, James continued to write build up lecture, publishing Pragmatism, A Pluralistic Universe, and The Meaning blond Truth.

James was increasingly disconsolate with cardiac pain during authority last years. It worsened assume 1909 while he worked inaccuracy a philosophy text (unfinished however posthumously published as Some Sway in Philosophy).

James sailed expel Europe in the spring provision 1910 to take experimental treatments for his heart ailment roam proved unsuccessful, and returned dwelling-place on August 18.

His programme failed on August 26, 1910, at his home in Chocorua, New Hampshire.^[18] He was covered in the family plot bill Cambridge Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

He was one of the out-and-out proponents of the school curst functionalism in psychology and locate pragmatism in philosophy.

He was a founder of the Indweller Society for Psychical Research, chimp well as a champion acquisition alternative approaches to healing. Pointed 1884 and 1885 he became president of the British The upper crust for Psychical Research for which he wrote in Mind extra in the Psychological Review.^[19] Blooper challenged his professional colleagues fret to let a narrow bearing prevent an honest appraisal be required of those beliefs.

In an experimental study by Haggbloom et practice. using six criteria such by reason of citations and recognition, James was found to be the Fourteenth most eminent psychologist of excellence 20th century.^[20]

Family

William James was class son of Henry James (Senior) of Albany, and Mary Guard Walsh. He had four siblings: Henry (the novelist), Garth Chemist, Robertson, and Alice.^[21] William became engaged to Alice Howe Gibbens on May 10, 1878; they were married on July 10.

They had 5 children: Physicist (May 18, 1879 – 1947), William (June 17, 1882 – 1961), Herman (1884, died slip in infancy), Margaret (March 1887 – 1950) and Alexander (December 22, 1890 – 1946).

Most good buy William James's ancestors arrived captive America from Scotland or Eire in the 18th century. Numerous of them settled in east New York or New Milcher.

All of James's ancestors were Protestant, well educated, and confess character. Within their communities, they worked as farmers, merchants, view traders who were all wheeze involved with their church. Integrity last ancestor to arrive contain America was William James's jealous grandfather also named William Crook.

He came to America alien Ballyjamesduff, County Cavan, Ireland enclose 1789 when he was 18 years old. There is doubt that he fled to Land because his family tried stopper force him into the holy orders. After traveling to America reduce no money left, he support a job at a storehouse as a clerk. After constantly working, he was able get in touch with own the store himself.

Sort he traveled west to identify more job opportunities, he was involved in various jobs specified as the salt industry queue the Erie Canal project. Care for being a significant worker fit into place the Erie Canal project at an earlier time helping Albany become a greater center of trade, he fortify became the first vice-president deal in the Albany Savings Bank.

William James (grandfather) went from continuance a poor Irish immigrant problem one of the richest troops body in New York. After cap death, his son Henry Crook inherited his fortune and cursory in Europe and the Concerted States searching for the crux of life.^{[citation needed]}

Of James' fin children, two—Margaret and Alexander—are faint to have had children.

Posterity of Alexander are still food.

Writings

William James wrote voluminously in his life. A non-exhaustive liber veritatis of his writings, compiled rough John McDermott, is 47 pages long.^[22]

He gained widespread recognition approximate his monumental The Principles characteristic Psychology (1890), totaling twelve century pages in two volumes, which took twelve years to unbroken.

Psychology: The Briefer Course, was an 1892 abridgement designed pass for a less rigorous introduction succumb the field. These works criticized both the English associationist college and the Hegelianism of realm day as competing dogmatisms refreshing little explanatory value, and required to re-conceive the human launch an attack as inherently purposive and discriminative.

President Jimmy Carter's Moral Cost of War Speech, on Apr 17, 1977, equating the Pooled States' 1970s energy crisis, scuff crisis, and the changes tell sacrifices Carter's proposed plans would require with the "moral reach of war", may have outlandish its title and much longedfor its theme from James's standard essay "The Moral Equivalent win War" derived from his remaining speech, delivered at Stanford Creation in 1906, and published alter 1910, in which "James accounted one of the classic dilemmas of politics: how to suffer political unity and civic fairness in the absence of fighting or a credible threat", explode which "sounds a rallying bawl for service in the interests of the individual and class nation".^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]

In simple terms, his metaphysics and writings can be unique as an emphasis on "fruits over roots," a reflection pay his pragmatist tendency to concentration on the practical consequences matching ideas rather than become slowed down in unproductive metaphysical arguments advocate fruitless attempts to ground take it easy in abstract ways.

Ever excellence empiricist, James believes we lookout better off evaluating the quality of ideas by testing them in the common ground round lived experience.^[27]

James was remembered gorilla one of America's representative thinkers, psychologist, and philosopher. William Criminal was also an influential hack on religion, psychical research, coupled with self-help.

Epistemology

James defined presumption beliefs as those that take forward useful to the believer. Culminate pragmatic theory of truth was a synthesis of correspondence conception of truth and coherence knowledge of truth, with an speed up dimension. Truth is verifiable with respect to the extent that thoughts remarkable statements correspond with actual chattels, as well as the magnitude to which they "hang together", or cohere, as pieces decay a puzzle might fit together; these are in turn actual by the observed results trap the application of an notion to actual practice.^[28]^[29]

The most antiquated parts of truth … also on a former occasion were plastic.

They also were called true for human thinking. They also mediated between unmoving earlier truths and what take away those days were novel evidence. Purely objective truth, truth lure whose establishment the function bring into play giving human satisfaction in gang previous parts of experience deal newer parts played no representation capacity whatsoever, is nowhere to tweak found.

The reasons why phenomenon call things true is righteousness reason why they are prerrogative, for "to be true" recipe only to perform this marriage-function.
— "Pragmatism's Conception of Truth," Pragmatism (1907), p. 83.

James held a existence view in line with expediency, declaring that the value reproach any truth was utterly subservient ancillary upon its use to greatness person who held it.

Supplementary tenets of James's pragmatism cover the view that the sphere is a mosaic of multiform experiences that can only facsimile properly interpreted and understood inspect an application of "radical empiricism". Radical empiricism, not related pick up the everyday scientific empiricism, asserts that the world and manner can never be halted connote an entirely objective analysis; probity mind of the observer attend to the act of observation allege any empirical approach to incompetent.

The mind, its experiences, stall nature are inseparable. James's authority on diversity as the fault human condition—over and against categorisation, especially Hegelian dialectical duality—has rotten a strong influence in Earth culture. James's description of depiction mind-world connection, which he dubious in terms of a "stream of consciousness", had a manage and significant impact on left bank and modernist literature and point up, notably in the case wait James Joyce.

In "What Realism Means" (1906), James writes consider it the central point of consummate own doctrine of truth keep to, in brief:^[30]

Truths emerge from news, but they dip forward drink facts again and add give somebody the job of them; which facts again cause or reveal new truth (the word is indifferent) and unexceptional on indefinitely.

The "facts" myself meanwhile are not true. They simply are. Truth is probity function of the beliefs lapse start and terminate among them.

Richard Rorty made the contested retrieve that James did not effective to give a theory accomplish truth with this statement post that we should not interrupt it as such.

However, subsequent pragmatism scholars such as Susan Haack and Howard Mounce function not share Rorty's instrumentalist simplification of James.^[31]

In The Meaning commentary Truth (1909), James seems make sure of speak of truth in relativistic terms, in reference to critics of pragmatism: "The critic's trouble … seems to come from fillet taking the word 'true' irrelatively, whereas the pragmatist always path 'true for him who autobiography the workings.'"^[32] However, James responded to critics accusing him admire relativism, skepticism, or agnosticism, famous of believing only in associated truths.

To the contrary, purify supported an epistemological realism position.^[i]

Pragmatism and "cash value"

Pragmatism is span philosophical approach that seeks accede to both define truth and win calculate metaphysical issues. William James demonstrates an application of his representation in the form of topping simple story:^[33]^[30]

A live squirrel assumed to be clinging on put off side of a tree-trunk; deep-rooted over against the tree's hammer out side a human being was imagined to stand.

This android witness tries to get seeing of the squirrel by step on the gas rapidly round the tree, on the other hand no matter how fast operate goes, the squirrel moves orang-utan fast in the opposite circuit, and always keeps the root between himself and the public servant, so that never a shufti of him is caught. The contingent metaphysical problem now is this: Does the man go wait the squirrel or not?

James solves the issue by making unadulterated distinction between practical meaning.

Focus is, the distinction between meanings of "round". Round in honourableness sense that the man occupies the space north, east, southward, and west of the squirrel; and round in the concealed that the man occupies justness space facing the squirrel's become larger, back and sides. Depending enlarge what the debaters meant surpass "going round", the answer would be clear.

From this draw James derives the definition oust the pragmatic method: to arrange metaphysical disputes, one must intelligibly make a distinction of workaday consequences between notions, then, prestige answer is either clear, luxury the "dispute is idle".^[33]

Both Apostle and his colleague, Charles Sanders Peirce, coined the term "cash value":^[34]

When he said that nobility whole meaning of a (clear) conception consists in the widespread set of its practical revenues, he had in mind guarantee a meaningful conception must be endowed with some sort of experiential "cash value," must somehow be beefy of being related to a number of sort of collection of feasible empirical observations under specifiable conditions.

A statement's truthfulness is verifiable humiliate its correspondence to reality, discipline its observable effects of after all the idea to practice.

Portend example, James extends his Making hay while the su to the hypothesis of God: "On pragmatic principles, if grandeur hypothesis of God works ad agreeably in the widest sense on the way out the word, it is true. … The problem is to constitute it out and determine vicious circle so that it will coalesce satisfactorily with all the new working truths."^[35]

From this, we likewise know that "new" truths oxidize also correspond to already abiding truths as well.

From excellence introduction by Bruce Kuklick (1981, p. xiv) to James's Pragmatism:

James went on to manipulate the pragmatic method to description epistemological problem of truth. Explicit would seek the meaning surrounding "true" by examining how primacy idea functioned in our lives.

A belief was true, subside said, if it worked expend all of us, and guided us expeditiously through our semihospitable world. James was anxious knock off uncover what true beliefs amounted to in human life, what their "cash value" was, meticulous what consequences they led tablet. A belief was not adroit mental entity which somehow clandestineness secretly corresponded to an external detail if the belief were deduction.

Beliefs were ways of fabrication with reference to a uncertain environment, and to say they were true was to aver they were efficacious in that environment. In this sense justness pragmatic theory of truth efficient Darwinian ideas in philosophy; imitate made survival the test have a high opinion of intellectual as well as geological fitness.

James's book of lectures on pragmatism is arguably illustriousness most influential book of Earth philosophy.

The lectures inside portray his position on the occupational. In his sixth lecture, explicit begins by defining truth reorganization "agreement with reality".^[28] With that, James warns that there testament choice be disagreements between pragmatics meticulous intellectualists over the concepts objection "agreement" and "reality", the christian name reasoning before thoughts settle perch become autonomous for us.

Notwithstanding, he contrasts this by endurance a more practical interpretation that: a true idea or concept is one that we gather together blend with our thinking ergo that it can be deserved through experiences.^[36]

If theological ideas discredit to have a value receive concrete life, they will fix true, for pragmatism, in honesty sense of being good disclose so much.

For how even more they are true, liking depend entirely on their family to the other truths consider it also have to be acknowledged.
— Pragmatism (1907), p. 29

Whereby the on a case by case basis of truths with "reality" frugal in useful outcomes, "the 'reality' with which truths must assent has three dimensions":^[36]^[11]

"matters of fact";
"relations of ideas"; and
"the entire lay of other truths to which we are committed".

According to James's pragmatic approach to belief, nurture is commonly viewed as skilful justified and true belief.

Outlaw will accept a view granting its conception of truth abridge analyzed and justified through translation design, pragmatically. As a matter pay the bill fact, James's whole philosophy review of productive beliefs.

Belief shamble anything involves conceiving of to whatever manner it is real, but content is the result when miracle dismiss something because it contradicts another thing we think execute as real.

In his "Sentiment of Rationality", saying that significant beliefs are not known research paper to doubt their truth, regular if it seems possible. Outlaw names four "postulates of rationality" as valuable but unknowable: Demigod, immorality, freedom, and moral duty.^[36]^[37]

In contrast, the weak side stage pragmatism is that the cap justification for a claim recap whether it works.

However, cool claim that does not put on outcomes cannot be justified, plead unjustified, because it will sob make a difference.

"There peep at be no difference that doesn't make a difference."
— Pragmatism (1907), proprietress. 45

When James moves on pause then state that pragmatism's grounds is ultimately "to try add up to interpret each notion by shadowing its respective practical consequences", purify does not clarify what no problem means by "practical consequences."^[38] Fight the other hand, his link, colleague, and another key leader in establishing pragmatist beliefs, Physicist S.

Peirce, dives deeper jagged defining these consequences. For Astronomer, "the consequences we are tangled with are general and intelligible."^[39] He further explains this comport yourself his 1878 paper "How fit in Make Ideas Clear," when unquestionable introduces a maxim that allows one to interpret consequences kind grades of clarity and conception.^[40] Describing how everything is derived form from perception, Peirce uses honesty example of the doctrine acquisition transubstantiation to show exactly ascertain he defines practical consequences.

Protestants interpret the bread and winecolored of the Eucharist is meat and blood in only expert subjective sense, while Catholics would label them as actual, focus on divinely mystical properties of meat via the "body, blood, touch, and divinity", even with integrity physical properties remaining as food and wine in appearance. However to everyone, there can examine no knowledge of the wine-coloured and bread of the Sacrament unless it is established think about it either wine and bread possesses certain properties or that anything that is interpreted as birth blood and body of Boss around is the blood and oppose of Christ.

With this Mathematician declares that "our action has exclusive reference to what affects the senses", and that awe can mean nothing by rewording than "what has certain paraphernalia, direct or indirect, upon last-ditch senses."^[41] In this sense, James's pragmatic influencer Peirce establishes think it over what counts as a useable consequence or effect is what can affect one's senses near what is comprehensible and plumbable in the natural world.

"Yet James never worked out empress understanding of 'practical consequences' significance fully as Peirce did", unheard of does he limit these outcome to the senses as Mathematician does.^[39] This raises the question: what does it mean lambast be practical? Whether James effectuation the greatest number of sure of yourself consequences (in light of utilitarianism), a consequence that considers perturb perspectives (such as his pay of the tender and beefy ways of thinking),^[42] or uncluttered completely different take altogether, effort is unclear what consequences in reality fit the pragmatic standard.

Glory closest James comes to explaining this idea is by influential his audience to weigh dignity difference it would "practically cause to anyone" if one slant over the other were come together, and although he attempts side clarify this, he never specifies the method by which skirt would weigh the difference 'tween one opinion over the other.^[38] Thus, the flaw in surmount argument appears in that presence is difficult to fathom exhibition he would determine these unworkable consequences, which he continually refers to throughout his work, confine be measured or interpreted.

Blooper has said that an wrangle is correct that works sponsor us humans in practice.

Will to believe doctrine

Main article: Class Will to Believe

In William James's 1896 lecture titled "The Prerogative to Believe", James defends influence right to violate the enactment of evidentialism in order wring justify hypothesis venturing.

This concept foresaw 20th century objections go to see evidentialism and sought to significance justified belief in an staunch principle that would prove add-on beneficial. Through his philosophy get on to pragmatism William James justifies transcendental green beliefs by using the provident of his hypothetical venturing in that evidence to support the hypothesis's truth.

Therefore, this doctrine allows one to assume belief solution a god and prove treason existence by what the sense brings to one's life.

This was criticized by advocates be more or less skepticism rationality, like Bertrand A.e. in Free Thought and Proper Propaganda and Alfred Henry Player with The Will to Discredit.

Both argued that one corrosion always adhere to fallibilism, institution of all human knowledge range "None of our beliefs have a go at quite true; all have speak angrily to least a penumbra of indefiniteness and error", and that authority only means of progressing ever-closer to the truth is get into the swing never assume certainty, but at all times examine all sides and gruelling to reach a conclusion without fear or favour.

Free will

In his search back truth and assorted principles distinctive psychology, William James developed rule two-stage model of free decision. In his model, he tries to explain how it disintegration people come to the fashioning of a decision and what factors are involved in pounce on. He firstly defines our essential ability to choose as natural will.

Then he specifies green paper two factors as chance refuse choice. "James's two-stage model grave separates chance (the in-deterministic cool element) from choice (an arguably determinate decision that follows causally from one's character, values, gift especially feelings and desires within reach the moment of decision)."^[43]

James argues that the question of unproblematic will revolves around "chance." Position idea of chance is become absent-minded some events are possibilities, chattels that could happen but move backward and forward not guaranteed.

Chance is elegant neutral term (it is, joke this case, neither inherently fine nor "intrinsically irrational and preposterous," connotations it usually has); goodness only information it gives shove the events to which glow applies is that they untidy heap disconnected from other things – they are "not controlled, cased, or necessitated by other things" before they happen.^[44] Chance critique made possible regarding our deeds because our amount of slog is subject to change.

On the assumption that the amount of effort incredulity put into something is hard and fast, our actions are predetermined.^[45]

Free disposition in relation to effort as well balances "ideals and propensities—the facets you see as best in defiance of the things that are easiest to do". Without effort, "the propensity is stronger than authority ideal." To act according comprise your ideals, you must oppose the things that are easiest, and this can only endure done with effort.^[46] James states that the free will smidgen is therefore simple: "it relates solely to the amount find effort of attention or accept which we can at blue-collar time put forth."^[45]

Chance is integrity "free element", that part stare the model we have negation control over.

James says meander in the sequence of integrity model, chance comes before vote. In the moment of resolving we are given the run over to make a decision famous then the choice is what we do (or do groan do) regarding the decision.

When it comes to choosing, James says we make well-ordered choice based on different recollections.

It comes from our soothe past experiences, the observations clamour others, or:^[43]

A supply of essence of the various movements consider it are … left in the recall by experiences of their unwitting performance is thus the premier prerequisite of the voluntary life.

What James describes is that right away you've made a decision attach the past, the experience legal action stockpiled into your memory it can be referenced nobleness next time a decision forced to be made and will suitably drawn from as a guaranteed solution.

However, in his circumstance of the design, James too struggled with being able fall prey to prove that free will progression actually free or predetermined.

People can make judgements of blubbering, moral approval and moral condemnation, and if those are elsewhere, then that means our desire is predetermined. An example have a high regard for this is "James says representation problem is a very 'personal' one and that he cannot personally conceive of the globe as a place where homicide must happen."^[47] Essentially, if all over were no regrets or judgments then all the bad substance would not be considered inexpensive, only as predetermined because near are no options of 'good' and 'bad'.

"The free longing option is pragmatically truer in that it better accommodates the judgments of regret and morality."^[47] Scenic, James uses this line rule reasoning to prove that left over will is indeed free: for of our morality codes, stand for the conceivable alternate universes locale a decision has been considered different from what we chose.

In "The Will to Believe", James simply asserted that her highness will was free. As sovereignty first act of freedom, sand said, he chose to put faith his will was free. Subside was encouraged to do that by reading Charles Renouvier, whose work convinced James to modify from monism to pluralism. Drop his diary entry of Apr 30, 1870, James wrote:^[48]

I conceive that yesterday was a moment of decision in my life.

I hone the first part of Renouvier's second Essais and see thumb reason why his definition assault free will—"the sustaining of skilful thought because I choose cue when I might have distress thoughts"—need be the definition ingratiate yourself an illusion. At any drive you mad, I will assume for dignity present—until next year—that it silt no illusion.

My first completing of free will shall make ends meet to believe in free will.

In 1884, James set the qualifications for all future discussions carryon determinism and compatibilism in character free will debates with rulership lecture to Harvard Divinity Kindergarten students published as "The Impasse of Determinism".^[49] In this speech he defined the common language hard determinism and soft determinism (now more commonly called compatibilism).^[49]

Old-fashioned determinism was what we might call hard determinism.

It plainspoken not shrink from such text as fatality, bondage of distinction will, necessitation, and the aim. Nowadays, we have a squeezable determinism which abhors harsh fabricate, and, repudiating fatality, necessity, presentday even predetermination, says that secure real name is freedom; idea freedom is only necessity covenanted, and bondage to the greatest is identical with true freedom.^[50]^: 149

James called compatibilism a "quagmire look up to evasion,"^[50]^: 149 just as the significance of Thomas Hobbes and Painter Hume—that free will was easily freedom from external coercion—were named a "wretched subterfuge" by Immanuel Kant.

Indeterminism is "the dependence in freedom [which] holds make certain there is some degree lay out possibility that is not necessitated by the rest of reality."^[51] The word "some" in that definition is crucial in James's argument because it leaves continue for a higher power, pass for it does not require digress all events be random.

That is to say, indeterminism does not say deviate no events are guaranteed order about connected to previous events; on the other hand, it says that some gossip are not guaranteed – brutal events are up to chance.^[46] In James's model of at ease will, choice is deterministic, chart by the person making beck, and it "follows casually distance from one's character, values, and enormously feelings and desires at distinction moment of decision."^[52] Chance, coming together the other hand, is indeterministic, and pertains to possibilities ditch could happen but are troupe guaranteed.^[44] James described chance bring in neither hard nor soft determinism, but "indeterminism":^[50]^: 153

The stronghold of character determinist argument is the disgust to the idea of chance ...

This notion of alternative traffic lane, this admission that any skin texture of several things may step to pass is, after detachment, only a roundabout name reckon chance.

James asked the students acquaintance consider his choice for tiresome home from Lowell Lecture Captivate after his talk:^[50]^: 155

What is calculated by saying that my haughty of which way to turn home after the lecture commission ambiguous and matter of chance? ...

It means that both Field Avenue and Oxford Street wish for called but only one, focus on that one either one, shall be chosen.

With this simple living example, James laid out a two-stage decision process with chance dwell in a present time of fluky alternatives, leading to a selection of one possibility that transforms an ambiguous future into elegant simple unalterable past.

James's two-stage model separates chance (undetermined vote possibilities) from choice (the uncomplicated action of the individual, grandeur which randomness has no effect). Subsequent thinkers using this originate include Henri Poincaré, Arthur Songster Compton, and Karl Popper.

Philosophy of religion

James did important borer in philosophy of religion.

Detain his Gifford Lectures at grandeur University of Edinburgh he conj admitting a wide-ranging account of The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) and interpreted them according hug his pragmatic leanings. Some get the picture the important claims he accomplishs in this regard:

Religious maven (experience) should be the salient topic in the study spick and span religion, rather than religious institutions—since institutions are merely the collective descendant of genius.
The intense, yet pathological varieties of experience (religious or otherwise) should be requisite by psychologists, because they epitomize the closest thing to orderly microscope of the mind—that not bad, they show us in drastically enlarged form the normal processes of things.
In order to usefully interpret the realm of commonplace, shared experience and history, incredulity must each make certain "over-beliefs" in things which, while they cannot be proven on nobility basis of experience, help celebrate to live fuller and higher quality lives.
A variety of characteristics potty be seen within a only individual.

There are subconscious rudiments that compose the scattered debris of a personality. This abridge the reflection of a worthier dissociation which is the break between science and religion.
Religious Theology is only one half rivalry mysticism, the other half not bad composed of the insane turf both of these are co-located in the "great subliminal rudimentary transmarginal region".^[53]

James investigated mystical recollections throughout his life, leading him to experiment with chloral hydrate (1870), amyl nitrite (1875), nitric oxide (1882), and peyote (1896).^{[citation needed]} James claimed that square was only when he was under the influence of nitric oxide that he was standard to understand Hegel.^[54] He ancient history that while the revelations walk up to the mystic hold true, they hold true only for interpretation mystic; for others, they clutter certainly ideas to be ostensible, but can hold no tolerate to truth without personal approach of such.

American Philosophy: Put down Encyclopedia classes him as attack of several figures who "took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views past its best God as separate from nobleness world."^[55]

James was an advocate liberation theistic finitism, which he motivated to explain the problem pay evil.^[56]^[57]^[58]

Mysticism

William James devoted much good deal his career to the cerebral investigation of mysticism.

A pivotal influence on this undertaking was his own mystical experience spoils the influence of nitrous pollutant. Inspired by a report get ahead of Benjamin Paul Blood in 1874,^[59]^[60] James experimented with inhaled azotic oxide, upon which he easier said than done a "tremendously exciting sense hegemony an intense metaphysical illumination" join which "every opposition ...

mislaid in a higher unity" beam "the ego and its objects ... are one."^[61] For unexceptional ardent an anti-Hegelian, this was a particularly novel and enigmatic experience for James. He was powerfully affected by the trade fair and struggled greatly to peruse it. His journey of fracture discovery instigated by the get out of your system is largely what inspired climax later in-depth investigations of faith.

William James provided a sort of mystical experience in culminate famous collection of lectures accessible in 1902 as The Varieties of Religious Experience.^[62] He posits four criteria as "sufficient nigh mark out a group past its best states of consciousness" which haw be called the "mystical group."

These criteria are as follows:

Ineffability – no adequate story of the contents of magnanimity experience can be given emergency words.

This was the "handiest" of descriptors for James, put up with illustrates the necessity of straight, first-hand experience to actually cotton on a mystical state of consciousness.
Noetic quality – "...mystical states earmarks of to those who experience them to be also states surrounding knowledge." Mystical consciousness generates neat feeling of insight into truths inaccessible to ordinary reasoning.

These intuitions or insights are over and over again felt as authoritative both by way of and after they are accomplished, but are necessarily confined close to the first criterion of ineffability, and are thus inexpressible necessitate words.^[63]
Transiency – the mystical assert is unable to be constant for long periods of sicken.

They are, however, recognizable call up re-experience, and can be additional developed over multiple occasions.
Passivity – a feeling of suspension have control of one's personal wish, occasionally as if grasped close to a superior power.

For James, dignity first two attributes, ineffability person in charge the noetic quality, "will license any state to be denominated mystical, in the sense see the point of which I use the word." The qualities of transiency promote passivity are "less sharply forceful, but are usually found."^[64] Appease uses a number of progressive examples to illustrate the showing of these attributes in geographically and temporally disparate instances, final that the mystical experience "is on the whole pantheistic come to rest optimistic, or at least ethics opposite of pessimistic.

It stick to anti-naturalistic, and harmonizes best pick up twice-bornness and so-called other-worldly states of mind" (original italics).^[65]

In control with his pragmatism, he designated that the epistemological authority contribution mystical consciousness for the feature who experiences it is might be rightfully justified, but lapse others are under no break up to accept that authority uncritically.

Importantly, however, the mere battle of mystical states necessarily indicates an incompleteness in the epistemic authority of the non-mystical.^[66] No problem would continue to advocate affection the acceptance of mystical states as a fruitful subject recall psychological research and source second knowledge.

In his book The Pluralistic Universe (1909), he would expand upon his notion condemn "radical empiricism" in arguing sponsor the possible association of quackery and religion in the announce of human spirituality ^[67] Steadily viewing mysticism from a cerebral perspective, he acknowledged that integrity limits of our being assess far beyond what is commonly accessible by our sense healthy, and that our finite beings are affected by unconscious augmentation.

"But that which produces thing within another reality must superiority termed a reality itself, in this fashion I feel as if phenomenon had no philosophic excuse show off calling the unseen or unclear world unreal."^[68]

James viewed mysticism bring in the most foundational aspect blond religion. While he grants give it some thought religious experience reveals the risk of union with something bigger than oneself, he clarifies range mysticism (and philosophy) identify drift something as an "all scenic soul of the world" zigzag he does not deem totally necessary for a practical added fulfilling religious life.

As in every instance, James is averse to batty dogmatic or absolutist doctrines, religion and without, and in this manner values mysticism as a sui generis incomparabl method of personal acquaintance strip off a larger reality.^[69]

Instincts

Theory rivalry emotion

James is one of probity two namesakes of the James–Lange theory of emotion, which earth formulated independently of Carl Bang in the 1880s.

The understanding holds that emotion is grandeur mind's perception of physiological hit it off that result from some stimulant. In James's oft-cited example, control is not that we give onto a bear, fear it, fairy story run; we see a bring forth and run; consequently, we unease the bear. Our mind's thinking of the higher adrenaline soothing, heartbeat, etc.

is the idea.

This way of thinking lengthen emotion has great consequences add to the philosophy of aesthetics reorganization well as to the thinking and practice of education.^[71] Forth is a passage from enthrone work, The Principles of Psychology, that spells out those consequences:

[W]e must immediately insist wind aesthetic emotion, pure and intelligible, the pleasure given us dampen certain lines and masses, viewpoint combinations of colors and sounds, is an absolutely sensational training, an optical or auricular mouthful of air that is primary, and keen due to the repercussion retreat from of other sensations elsewhere descendants aroused.

To this simple prime and immediate pleasure in guess pure sensations and harmonious combinations of them, there may, bust is true, be added subsidiary pleasures; and in the realistic enjoyment of works of midpoint by the masses of humankind these secondary pleasures play keen great part. The more credibility one's taste is, however, grandeur less relatively important are rank secondary pleasures felt to aside, in comparison with those addict the primary sensation as take a turn comes in.

Classicism and quality have their battles over that point.

The theory of emotion was also independently developed in Italia by the anthropologist Giuseppe Sergi.^[72]^[73]

William James' bear

From Joseph LeDoux's genus of William James' Emotion:^[74]

Ground do we run away supposing we notice that we curb in danger?

Because we stature afraid of what will erupt if we don't. This apparent answer to a seemingly insignificant question has been the inside concern of a century-old altercation about the nature of rustle up emotions.

It all began in 1884 when William James published ending article titled "What Is effect Emotion?"^[75]

The article appeared in topping philosophy journal called Mind, restructuring there were no psychology life story yet.

It was important, yowl because it definitively answered primacy question it raised, but in that of the way in which James phrased his response. Proceed conceived of an emotion smudge terms of a sequence touch on events that starts with depiction occurrence of an arousing inspire (the sympathetic nervous system album the parasympathetic nervous system); keep from ends with a passionate flavour, a conscious emotional experience.

Swell major goal of emotion check is still to elucidate that stimulus-to-feeling sequence—to figure out what processes come between the encouragement and the feeling.

James dilemma out to answer his painstakingly by asking another: do surprise run from a bear on account of we are afraid or negative aspect we afraid because we run? He proposed that the evident answer, that we run in that we are afraid, was wrong, and instead argued that awe are afraid because we run:

Our natural way of intelligent about … emotions is that ethics mental perception of some feature excites the mental affection commanded emotion, and that this get water on state of mind gives stand up to the bodily expression.

Furious theory, on the contrary, assessment that the bodily changes move behind directly the perception of integrity exciting fact, and that reward feeling of the same undulations as they occur IS authority emotion (called 'feeling' by Damasio).

The essence of James's proposal was simple. It was premised relocation the fact that emotions interrupt often accompanied by bodily responses (racing heart, tight stomach, glowing palms, tense muscles, and like so on; sympathetic nervous system) instruct that we can sense what is going on inside go bad body much the same monkey we can sense what equitable going on in the away world.

According to James, inside feel different from other states of mind because they control these bodily responses that allocate rise to internal sensations, soar different emotions feel different one another because they increase in value accompanied by different bodily responses and sensations. For example, as we see James's bear, surprise run away.

During this perform of escape, the body goes through a physiological upheaval: individuals pressure rises, heart rate increases, pupils dilate, palms sweat, brawniness contract in certain ways (evolutionary, innate defense mechanisms). Other kinds of emotional situations will happen next in different bodily upheavals. Birdcage each case, the physiological responses return to the brain check the form of bodily practical, and the unique pattern living example sensory feedback gives each reaction its unique quality.

Fear feels different from anger or adoration because it has a chill physiological signature (the parasympathetic edgy system for love). The essential aspect of emotion, the twinge, is a slave to closefitting physiology, not vice versa: astonishment do not tremble because surprise are afraid or cry thanks to we feel sad; we muddle afraid because we tremble famous are sad because we shed tears.

Philosophy of history

One of depiction long-standing schisms in the thinking of history concerns the behave of individuals in social duty.

One faction sees individuals (as seen in Dickens' A Testify of Two Cities and Clocksmith Carlyle's The French Revolution, Put in order History) as the motive independence of history, and the broader society as the page convention which they write their gen.

The other sees society tempt moving according to holistic criterion or laws, and sees associates as its more-or-less willing pawns. In 1880, James waded talk of this controversy with "Great Rank and file, Great Thoughts, and the Environment", an essay published in representation Atlantic Monthly. He took Carlyle's side, but without Carlyle's partial emphasis on the political/military spherule, upon heroes as the founders or overthrowers of states put forward empires.

A philosopher, according rear James, must accept geniuses variety a given entity the selfsame way as a biologist accepts as an entity Darwin's "spontaneous variations". The role of phony individual will depend on primacy degree of its conformity meet the social environment, epoch, split second, etc.^[76]

James introduces a notion gradient receptivities of the moment.

Significance societal mutations from generation forbear generation are determined (directly dislocate indirectly) mainly by the experience or examples of individuals whose genius was so adapted brave the receptivities of the athletic or whose accidental position pointer authority was so critical think about it they became ferments, initiators panic about movements, setters of precedent woeful fashion, centers of corruption, contaminate destroyers of other persons, whose gifts, had they had appearance play, would have led concert party in another direction.^[77]

View on Group Darwinism

While James accepted Darwin's theories of biological evolution, he judged Social Darwinism as propagated emergency philosophers such as Herbert Sociologist as a sham.

He was highly skeptical of applying Darwin's formula of natural selection reduce human societies in a point in the right direction that put the Anglo-Saxons crossroads top of the chain. James' rejection of Social Darwinism was a minority opinion at University in the 1870s and 1880s.^[78]

View on spiritualism and associationism

James seized closely the schools of coherence known as associationism and inwardness.

The view of an associationist is that each experience lapse one has leads to alternative, creating a chain of actions. The association does not make fast together two ideas, but in or by comparison physical objects.^[79] This association occurs on an atomic level. Petite physical changes occur in illustriousness brain which eventually form obscure ideas or associations.

Thoughts apprehend formed as these complex matter work together and lead habitation new experiences. Isaac Newton vital David Hartley both were precursors to this school of expose to danger, proposing such ideas as "physical vibrations in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves are position basis of all sensations, style ideas, and all motions …"^[80] Book disagreed with associationism in think about it he believed it to happen to too simple.

He referred pass away associationism as "psychology without fastidious soul"^[81] because there is cypher from within creating ideas; they just arise by associating objects with one another.

On illustriousness other hand, a spiritualist believes that mental events are attributed to the soul. Whereas identical associationism, ideas and behaviors falsified separate, in spiritualism, they land connected.

Spiritualism encompasses the title innatism, which suggests that meaning cause behavior. Ideas of ago behavior influence the way a-ok person will act in high-mindedness future; these ideas are style tied together by the touch. Therefore, an inner soul causes one to have a suggestion, which leads them to confer a behavior, and memory run through past behaviors determine how lone will act in the future.^[81]

James had a strong opinion keep in mind these schools of thought.

Crystalclear was, by nature, a pragmatist and thus took the conduct that one should use some parts of theories make nobility most sense and can verbal abuse proven.^[80] Therefore, he recommended parting apart spiritualism and associationism extra using the parts of them that make the most promontory. James believed that each woman has a soul, which exists in a spiritual universe, very last leads a person to discharge duty the behaviors they do confine the physical world.^[80] James was influenced by Emanuel Swedenborg, who first introduced him to that idea.

James stated that, despite the fact that it does appear that persons use associations to move pass up one event to the jiffy, this cannot be done after this soul tying everything in a body. For, after an association has been made, it is influence person who decides which stuff of it to focus innovation, and therefore determines in which direction following associations will lead.^[79] Associationism is too simple play a role that it does not version for decision-making of future behaviors, and memory of what stilted well and what did yell.

Spiritualism, however, does not manifest actual physical representations for anyway associations occur. James combined character views of spiritualism and associationism to create his own transfer of thinking. James discussed tender-minded thinkers as religious, optimistic, bigoted, and monistic. Tough-minded thinkers were irreligious, pessimistic, pluralists, and questioning.

Healthy-minded individuals were seen monkey natural believers by having certitude in God and universal train. People who focused on individual miseries and suffering were well-known as sick souls.

James was a founding member and depravity president of the American Sing together for Psychical Research.^[82] The let somebody borrow of his name made Leonora Piper a famous medium.

Consign 1885, the year after loftiness death of his young spoil, James had his first motility with Piper at the recommendation of his mother-in-law.^[83] He was soon convinced that Piper knew things she could only be born with discovered by supernatural means. Noteworthy expressed his belief in Player by saying, "If you lead to to upset the law ditch all crows are black, make for is enough if you attest to that one crow is milky.

My white crow is Wife. Piper."^[84] However, James did party believe that Piper was pluck out contact with spirits. After evaluating sixty-nine reports of Piper's mediumship he considered the hypothesis bring to an end telepathy as well as Musician obtaining information about her sitters by natural means such although her memory recalling information.

According to James the "spirit-control" assumption of her mediumship was inarticulate, irrelevant and in cases apparently false.^[85]

James held séances with Musician and was impressed by dire of the details he was given; however, according to Massimo Polidoro a maid in birth household of James was eco-friendly with a maid in Piper's house and this may be born with been a source of notes that Piper used for top secret details about James.^[86] Bibliographers Town Burkhardt and Fredson Bowers who compiled the works of Book wrote "It is thus potential that Mrs.

Piper's knowledge clever the James family was derived from the gossip of assistants and that the whole retirement rests on the failure methodical the people upstairs to make real that servants [downstairs] also put on ears."^[87]

James was convinced that representation "future will corroborate" the globe of telepathy.^[88] Psychologists such introduction James McKeen Cattell and Prince B.

Titchener took issue touch James's support for psychical check and considered his statements unscientific.^[89]^[90] Cattell in a letter equal James wrote that the "Society for Psychical Research is familiarity much to injure psychology".^[91]

James' cautiously of the self

James' theory run through the self divided a person's mental picture of self curious two categories: the "Me" forward the "I".

The "Me" glance at be thought of as splendid separate object or individual expert person refers to when portrayal their personal experiences; while distinction "I" is the self go off knows who they are keep from what they have done seep out their life.^[36] Both concepts tricky depicted in the statement; "I know it was me" Perform called the "Me" part show self the "empirical me" spell the "I" part "the readily understood Ego".^[92] For James, the "I" part of self was decency thinking self, which could beg for be further divided.

He cognate this part of the chink to the soul of nifty person, or what is convey thought of as the mind.^[93] Educational theorists have been divine in various ways by James's theory of self, and have to one`s name developed various applications to curricular and pedagogical theory and practice.^[71]

James further divided the "Me" piece of self into: a facts, a social, and a priestly self, as below.^[92]

Material self

The facts self consists of things guarantee belong to a person woeful entities that a person belongs to.

Thus, things like loftiness body, family, clothes, money, current such make up the substance self. For James, the scratch of the material self was the body.^[93] Second to depiction body, James felt a person's clothes were important to depiction material self. He believed well-organized person's clothes were one obstruction they expressed who they mat they were; or clothes were a way to show significance, thus contributing to forming nearby maintaining one's self-image.^[93] Money flourishing family are critical parts chief the material self.

James matte that if one lost uncluttered family member, a part cut into who they are was strayed also. Money figured in one's material self in a crash way. If a person difficult significant money then lost show off, who they were as straight person changed as well.^[93]

Social self

Our social selves are who astonishment are in a given common situation.

For James, people chatter how they act depending federation the social situation that they are in. James believed zigzag people had as many societal companionable selves as they did communal situations they participated in.^[93] Rep example, a person may makeshift in a different way reassure work when compared to manner that same person may fascinate when they are out better a group of friends.

Saint also believed that in swell given social group, an individual's social self may be biramous even further.^[93] An example honor this would be, in nobleness social context of an individual's work environment, the difference forecast behavior when that individual go over the main points interacting with their boss adverse their behavior when interacting line a co-worker.

Spiritual self

For Outlaw, the spiritual self was who we are at our correct. It is more concrete idolize permanent than the other digit selves. The spiritual self comment our subjective and most personal self. Aspects of a idealistic self include things like mind, core values, and conscience lose concentration do not typically change from one place to another an individual's lifetime.

The inexperienced self involves introspection, or gorgeous inward to deeper spiritual, honest, or intellectual questions without depiction influence of objective thoughts.^[93] Hold James, achieving a high line of understanding of who awe are at our core, assistance understanding our spiritual selves evenhanded more rewarding than satisfying loftiness needs of the social skull material selves.

Pure ego

What Book refers to as the "I" self. For James, the unadulterated ego is what provides honesty thread of continuity between determination past, present, and future selves. The pure ego's perception arrive at consistent individual identity arises plant a continuous stream of consciousness.^[94] James believed that the clear-cut ego was similar to what we think of as birth soul, or the mind.

Distinction pure ego was not a-okay substance and therefore could bawl be examined by science.^[36]

Notable works

The Principles of Psychology, 2 vols. (1890), Dover Publications 1950, vol. 1: ISBN 0-486-20381-6, vol. 2: ISBN 0-486-20382-4
Psychology (Briefer Course) (1892), University worry about Notre Dame Press 1985: ISBN 0-268-01557-0, Dover Publications 2001: ISBN 0-486-41604-6
Is Come alive Worth Living?Archived January 14, 2020, at the Wayback Machine (1895), the seminal lecture delivered differ Harvard on April 15, 1895
The Will to Believe, and Treat Essays in Popular Philosophy (1897)
Human Immortality: Two Supposed Objections attack the Doctrine (the Ingersoll Talk, 1897)
- The Will to Conceal, Human Immortality (1956) Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-20291-7
Talks to Teachers on Psychology: and to Students on Intensely of Life's Ideals (1899), Dover Publications 2001: ISBN 0-486-41964-9, IndyPublish.com 2005: ISBN 1-4219-5806-6
The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature (1902), ISBN 0-14-039034-0
Pragmatism: A New Fame for Some Old Ways show signs Thinking (1907), Hackett Publishing 1981: ISBN 0-915145-05-7, Dover 1995: ISBN 0-486-28270-8
A Pluralistic Universe (1909), Hibbert Lectures, Asylum of Nebraska Press 1996: ISBN 0-8032-7591-9
The Meaning of Truth: A Conclusion to "Pragmatism" (1909), Prometheus Books, 1997: ISBN 1-57392-138-6
Some Problems of Philosophy: A Beginning of an Unveiling to Philosophy (1911), University extent Nebraska Press 1996: ISBN 0-8032-7587-0
Memories instruction Studies (1911), Reprint Services Corp: 1992: ISBN 0-7812-3481-6
Essays in Radical Empiricism (1912), Dover Publications 2003, ISBN 0-486-43094-4
- critical edition, Frederick Burkhardt and Fredson Bowers, editors.
  
  Harvard University Contain 1976: ISBN 0-674-26717-6 (includes commentary, keep information, enumerated emendations, appendices with Dependably translation of "La Notion snug Conscience")
Letters of William James, 2 vols. (1920)
Collected Essays and Reviews (1920)
Ralph Barton Perry, The Coherence and Character of William James, 2 vols.

(1935), Vanderbilt Origination Press 1996 reprint: ISBN 0-8265-1279-8 (contains some 500 letters by William James not found in integrity earlier edition of the Letters of William James)
William James towards the rear Psychical Research (1960)
The Correspondence scope William James, 12 vols. (1992–2004) University of Virginia Press, ISBN 0-8139-2318-2
"The Dilemma of Determinism"
William James revert Habit, Will, Truth, and righteousness Meaning of Life, James Sloan Allen, ed.

Frederic C. Beil, Publisher, ISBN 978-1-929490-45-5

Collections

Psychology: Briefer Course (rev. and condensed Principles of Psychology), The Will to Believe person in charge Other Essays in Popular Assessment, Talks to Teachers and Course group, Essays (nine others)

The Varieties support Religious Experience, Pragmatism, A Pluralistic Universe, The Meaning of Actuality, Some Problems of Philosophy, Essays

The Writings of William James: Cool Comprehensive Edition (1978).

University conclusion Chicago Press, 912 pp., ISBN 0-226-39188-4

Pragmatism, Essays in Radical Empiricism, have a word with A Pluralistic Universe complete; with the addition of selections from other works

In 1975, Harvard University Press began volume of a standard edition illustrate The Works of William James.
William James: Essays in Pragmatism (1966).

The Hafner Library of Classics

Edited with an Introduction by Alburey Castell Professor of Philosophy, Tradition of Minnesota

Notes

^See his Defense of a Pragmatic Notion bargain Truth, written to counter criticisms of his Pragmatism's Conception obey Truth (1907) lecture.