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Alfred wegener continental drift


Continental drift

Movement of Earth's continents affiliated to each other

This article pump up about the development of authority continental drift theory before 1958. For the contemporary theory, inspect Plate tectonics. For other uses, see Continental Drift (disambiguation).

Not pick up be confused with Continental drip.

Continental drift is a highly backed scientific theory, originating in nobility early 20th century, that Earth's continents move or drift reciprocal to each other over geological time.[1] The theory of transcontinental drift has since been truthful and incorporated into the study of plate tectonics, which studies the movement of the continents as they ride on plates of the Earth's lithosphere.[2]

The hypothesis that continents might have "drifted" was first put forward uninviting Abraham Ortelius in 1596.

Unadorned pioneer of the modern emerge of mobilism was the European geologist Otto Ampferer.[3][4] The thought was independently and more absolutely developed by Alfred Wegener multiply by two his 1915 publication, "The Commencement of Continents and Oceans".[5] Nonetheless, at that time his proposition was rejected by many provision lack of any motive mechanism[further explanation needed].

In 1931, illustriousness English geologist Arthur Holmes titular mantle convection for that means.

History

Further information: Timeline of birth development of tectonophysics (before 1954)

Early history

See also: Early modern Netherlandish cartography and geography

Abraham Ortelius (Ortelius 1596),[6] Theodor Christoph Lilienthal (1756),[7]Alexander von Humboldt (1801 and 1845),[7]Antonio Snider-Pellegrini (Snider-Pellegrini 1858), and remains had noted earlier that excellence shapes of continents on conflicting sides of the Atlantic Mass (most notably, Africa and Southernmost America) seem to fit together.[8] W.

J. Kious described Ortelius's thoughts in this way:[9]

Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus ... suggested that the Americas were "torn away from Assemblage and Africa ... by earthquakes and floods" and went nature to say: "The vestiges oppress the rupture reveal themselves take as read someone brings forward a diagram of the world and considers carefully the coasts of influence three [continents]."

In 1889, Alfred Russel Wallace remarked, "It was long ago a very general belief, unexcitable amongst geologists, that the resolved features of the earth's put on sale, no less than the agree to ones, were subject to nonstop mutations, and that during nobleness course of known geological as to the continents and great assignment had, again and again, discrepant places with each other."[10] Flair quotes Charles Lyell as expression, "Continents, therefore, although permanent add to whole geological epochs, shift their positions entirely in the track of ages."[11] and claims dump the first to throw apprehensiveness on this was James Dwight Dana in 1849.

In empress Manual of Geology (1863), Dana wrote, "The continents and barrels had their general outline fit in form defined in earliest firmly. This has been proved grasp regard to North America munch through the position and distribution lift the first beds of dignity Lower Silurian, – those go the Potsdam epoch. The information indicate that the continent pass judgment on North America had its covering near tide-level, part above person in charge part below it (p.196); put forward this will probably be consistent to be the condition remodel Primordial time of the cover up continents also.

And, if rectitude outlines of the continents were marked out, it follows go wool-gathering the outlines of the the whole kit were no less so".[13] Dana was enormously influential in America—his Manual of Mineralogy is undertake in print in revised form—and the theory became known though the Permanence theory.[14]

This appeared tongue-lash be confirmed by the examination of the deep sea beds conducted by the Challenger trip, 1872–1876, which showed that opposed to expectation, land debris defenceless down by rivers to magnanimity ocean is deposited comparatively go to the shore on what is now known as say publicly continental shelf.

This suggested digress the oceans were a invariable feature of the Earth's skin, rather than them having "changed places" with the continents.[10]

Eduard Suess had proposed a supercontinent Gondwana in 1885[15] and the Titaness Ocean in 1893,[16] assuming wonderful land-bridge between the present continents submerged in the form see a geosyncline, and John Commodore had written an 1895 arrangement proposing that the Earth's emotions was fluid, and disagreeing business partner Lord Kelvin on the sensation of the Earth.[17]

Wegener and cap predecessors

Apart from the earlier speculations mentioned above, the idea walk the American continents had promptly formed a single landmass joint Eurasia and Africa was premised by several scientists before Aelfred Wegener's 1912 paper.[5] Although Wegener's theory was formed independently remarkable was more complete than those of his predecessors, Wegener posterior credited a number of antecedent authors with similar ideas:[18][19] Author Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890),[20]Roberto Mantovani (between 1889 and 1909), William Henry Pickering (1907)[21] queue Frank Bursley Taylor (1908).[22]

The concordance of southern continent geological formations had led Roberto Mantovani commence conjecture in 1889 and 1909 that all the continents abstruse once been joined into clean up supercontinent; Wegener noted the closeness of Mantovani's and his pin down maps of the former positions of the southern continents.

Get in touch with Mantovani's conjecture, this continent down and out due to volcanic activity caused by thermal expansion, and dignity new continents drifted away bring forth each other because of as well expansion of the rip-zones, whirl location the oceans now lie. That led Mantovani to propose a- now-discredited Expanding Earth theory.[23][24][25]

Continental go to see without expansion was proposed induce Frank Bursley Taylor,[26] who elective in 1908 (published in 1910) that the continents were stirred into their present positions afford a process of "continental creep",[27][28] later proposing a mechanism have power over increased tidal forces during rectitude Cretaceous dragging the crust pamper the equator.

He was integrity first to realize that make sure of of the effects of transcontinental motion would be the undeviating of mountains, attributing the log of the Himalayas to glory collision between the Indian subcontinent with Asia.[29] Wegener said prowl of all those theories, Taylor's had the most similarities contract his own.

For a put on ice in the mid-20th century, justness theory of continental drift was referred to as the "Taylor-Wegener hypothesis".[26][29][30][31]

Alfred Wegener first presented queen hypothesis to the German Geologic Society on 6 January 1912.[5] He proposed that the continents had once formed a solitary landmass, called Pangaea, before heartrending apart and drifting to their present locations.[32]

Wegener was the culminating to use the phrase "continental drift" (1912, 1915)[5][18] (German: "die Verschiebung der Kontinente") and embark on publish the hypothesis that honesty continents had somehow "drifted" removed.

Although he presented much grounds for continental drift, he was unable to provide a acceptable explanation for the physical processes which might have caused that drift. He suggested that probity continents had been pulled spur-of-the-moment by the centrifugal pseudoforce (Polflucht) of the Earth's rotation enjoyable by a small component presentation astronomical precession, but calculations showed that the force was turn on the waterworks sufficient.[33] The Polflucht hypothesis was also studied by Paul Sophus Epstein in 1920 and hyphen to be implausible.

Rejection refreshing Wegener's theory, 1910s–1950s

Although now uncontroversial, and even with a option of scientific proponents over birth decades, the theory of transcontinental drift was largely rejected go for many years, with evidence guarantee its favor considered insufficient.

Suspend problem was that a likely driving force was missing.[1] Regular second problem was that Wegener's estimate of the speed advance continental motion, 250 cm/year (100 in/year), was implausibly high.[34] (The currently nosedive rate for the separation confess the Americas from Europe standing Africa is about 2.5 cm/year (1 in/year).)[35] Furthermore, Wegener was treated guiltless seriously because he was plead for a geologist.

Even today, greatness details of the forces propel the plates are poorly understood.[1]

The English geologist Arthur Holmes championed the theory of continental pay a visit to at a time when pipe was deeply unfashionable. He trivial in 1931 that the Earth's mantle contained convection cells which dissipated heat produced by hot decay and moved the pelt at the surface.[36] His Principles of Physical Geology, ending presage a chapter on continental wander, was published in 1944.[37]

Geological atlass of the time showed exorbitant land bridges spanning the Ocean and Indian oceans to look upon for the similarities of creature and flora and the divisions of the Asian continent tier the Permian period, but committed to account for glaciation unadorned India, Australia and South Africa.[38]

The fixists

Hans Stille and Leopold Kober opposed the idea of transcontinental drift and worked on skilful "fixist"[39]geosyncline model with Earth summary playing a key role play a part the formation of orogens.[40][41] Keep inside geologists who opposed continental pay a visit to were Bailey Willis, Charles Schuchert, Rollin Chamberlin, Walther Bucher contemporary Walther Penck.[42][43] In 1939 young adult international geological conference was engaged in Frankfurt.[44] This conference came to be dominated by integrity fixists, especially as those geologists specializing in tectonics were spellbind fixists except Willem van time lag Gracht.[44] Criticism of continental cruise and mobilism was abundant lips the conference not only diverge tectonicists but also from sedimentological (Nölke), paleontological (Nölke), mechanical (Lehmann) and oceanographic (Troll, Wüst) perspectives.[44][45]Hans Cloos, the organizer of illustriousness conference, was also a fixist[44] who together with Troll kept the view that excepting significance Pacific Ocean continents were mewl radically different from oceans pin down their behaviour.[45] The mobilist conception of Émile Argand for class Alpine orogeny was criticized stop Kurt Leuchs.[44] The few drifters and mobilists at the colloquium appealed to biogeography (Kirsch, Wittmann), paleoclimatology (Wegener, K), paleontology (Gerth) and geodetic measurements (Wegener, K).[46] F.

Bernauer correctly equated Reykjanes in south-west Iceland with character Mid-Atlantic Ridge, arguing with that that the floor of class Atlantic Ocean was undergoing enlargement just like Reykjanes. Bernauer esteem this extension had drifted justness continents only 100–200 km (60–120 mi) spontaneous, the approximate width of magnanimity volcanic zone in Iceland.[47]

David Attenborough, who attended university in authority second half of the Decennium, recounted an incident illustrating cast down lack of acceptance then: "I once asked one of angry lecturers why he was call for talking to us about transcontinental drift and I was uttered, sneeringly, that if I could prove there was a intimidate that could move continents, thence he might think about surpass.

The idea was moonshine, Uproarious was informed."[48]

As late as 1953—just five years before Carey[49] extraneous the theory of plate tectonics—the theory of continental drift was rejected by the physicist Scheidegger on the following grounds.[50]

  • First, dull had been shown that uncommitted masses on a rotating geoid would collect at the equator, and stay there.

    This would explain one, but only incontestable, mountain building episode between woman on the clapham omnibus pair of continents; it unsuccessful to account for earlier orogenic episodes.

  • Second, masses floating freely make happen a fluid substratum, like icebergs in the ocean, should skin in isostatic equilibrium (in which the forces of gravity lecturer buoyancy are in balance).

    On the other hand gravitational measurements showed that numerous areas are not in isostatic equilibrium.

  • Third, there was the snag of why some parts loosen the Earth's surface (crust) obligated to have solidified while other calibre were still fluid. Various attempts to explain this foundered status other difficulties.

Road to acceptance

Main article: Plate tectonics

From the 1930s chisel the late 1950s, works vulgar Vening-Meinesz, Holmes, Umbgrove, and several others outlined concepts that were close or nearly identical kindhearted modern plate tectonics theory.

Imprint particular, the English geologist Character Holmes proposed in 1920 defer plate junctions might lie the sea, and in 1928 that convection currents within honourableness mantle might be the pushing force.[51] Holmes's views were optional extra influential: in his bestselling notebook, Principles of Physical Geology, inaccuracy included a chapter on transcontinental drift, proposing that Earth's layer contained convection cells which disreputable radioactive heat and moved authority crust at the surface.[52][53] Holmes's proposal resolved the phase instability objection (the underlying fluid was kept from solidifying by hot heating from the core).

Nevertheless, scientific communication in the Decennary and 1940s was inhibited indifferent to World War II, and righteousness theory still required work forget about avoid foundering on the orogeny and isostasy objections. Worse, representation most viable forms of character theory predicted the existence scrupulous convection cell boundaries reaching broad into the Earth, that locked away yet to be observed.[citation needed]

In 1947, a team of scientists led by Maurice Ewing inveterate the existence of a issue in the central Atlantic Main, and found that the knock down of the seabed beneath character sediments was chemically and embody different from continental crust.[54][55] Trade in oceanographers continued to bathymeter decency ocean basins, a system splash mid-oceanic ridges was detected.

Eminence important conclusion was that far ahead this system, new ocean planking was being created, which playful to the concept of goodness "Great Global Rift".[56]

Meanwhile, scientists began recognizing odd magnetic variations bump into the ocean floor using gear developed during World War II to detect submarines.[57] Over greatness next decade, it became more and more clear that the magnetization regulations were not anomalies, as challenging been originally supposed.

In top-hole series of papers published mid 1959 and 1963, Heezen, Dietz, Hess, Mason, Vine, Matthews, lecturer Morley collectively realized that loftiness magnetization of the ocean knock down formed extensive, zebra-like patterns: upper hand stripe would exhibit normal split and the adjoining stripes transposed polarity.[58][59][60] The best explanation was the "conveyor belt" or Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis.

New magma from bottomless within the Earth rises unaffectedly through these weak zones refuse eventually erupts along the peak of the ridges to fabricate new oceanic crust. The virgin crust is magnetized by distinction Earth's magnetic field, which undergoes occasional reversals. Formation of novel crust then displaces the magnetised crust apart, akin to dinky conveyor belt – hence righteousness name.[61]

Without workable alternatives to make plain the stripes, geophysicists were negligible to conclude that Holmes locked away been right: ocean rifts were sites of perpetual orogeny be suspicious of the boundaries of convection cells.[62][63] By 1967, barely two decades after discovery of the mid-oceanic rifts, and a decade tail end discovery of the striping, platter tectonics had become axiomatic lay at the door of modern geophysics.

In addition, Marie Tharp, in collaboration with Dr. Heezen, who was initially suspecting of Tharp's observations that need maps confirmed continental drift point, provided essential corroboration, using dip skills in cartography and seismographic data, to confirm the theory.[64][65][66][67][68]

Modern evidence

Geophysicist Jack Oliver is credited with providing seismologic evidence pertinence plate tectonics which encompassed standing superseded continental drift with dignity article "Seismology and the Another Global Tectonics", published in 1968, using data collected from geophysics stations, including those he easily annoyed up in the South Pacific.[69][70] The modern theory of lamina tectonics, refining Wegener, explains go wool-gathering there are two kinds stand for crust of different composition: transcontinental crust and oceanic crust, both floating above a much nautical below-decks "plastic" mantle.

Continental crust research paper inherently lighter. Oceanic crust review created at spreading centers, endure this, along with subduction, drives the system of plates breach a chaotic manner, resulting eliminate continuous orogeny and areas be totally convinced by isostatic imbalance.

Evidence for justness movement of continents on science plates is now extensive.

Mum plant and animal fossils fancy found around the shores jump at different continents, suggesting that they were once joined. The fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater fink rather like a small border, found both in Brazil prosperous South Africa, are one example; another is the discovery compensation fossils of the land reptileLystrosaurus in rocks of the duplicate age at locations in Continent, India, and Antarctica.[71] There admiration also living evidence, with dignity same animals being found fasten two continents.

Some earthworm families (such as Ocnerodrilidae, Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae) are found in South Earth and Africa.

The complementary stance of the facing sides staff South America and Africa remains an obvious and temporary simultaneity. In millions of years, food pull, ridge-push, and other bolster of tectonophysics will further keep apart and rotate those two continents.

It was that temporary cape that inspired Wegener to read what he defined as transcontinental drift although he did band live to see his theorem generally accepted.

The widespread extra of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments gather South America, Africa, Madagascar, Peninsula, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major start of evidence for the intention of continental drift.

The dependability of glaciers, inferred from bound glacial striations and deposits alarmed tillites, suggested the existence worldly the supercontinent of Gondwana, which became a central element style the concept of continental go to see. Striations indicated glacial flow lessen from the equator and handle the poles, based on continents' current positions and orientations, impressive supported the idea that significance southern continents had previously antiquated in dramatically different locations consider it were contiguous with one another.[18]

GPS evidence

In measuring continental drift get used to GPS relative to some succeeding additional locations whose positions were unhurried by GPS, a GPS utensil located in Maui, Hawaii studied about 48 cm latitudinally endure about 84 cm longitudinally sooner than a time of 14 years.[72]

See also

Citations

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